Advancements in Rockets

Advancements in Rockets My paper is going to inform you of the advancements that we the world have made over the years. The success and the failure that we have made and who and what has and hasn’t influenced the rocket in how its made or the look and shape and why it flew and how it flew and the advantages of having rockets and the different types of rockets. The Chinese were one of the first to start experimenting with gun powder they made arrows and attached a tube full of gun powder the escaping gas made the arrow move faster and fly farther and thus the first rocket was born.Later the Chinese used the gun powder idea and made a bigger tube and a longer arrow to help them fly straighter they used these new rockets to defend them from the attack of Mongols in 1232 the Mongols called these rockets â€Å"arrows of flying fire† and these arrows had great psychological effects on the Mongols. Europe the Mongols took this rocket idea and spread it through out Europe. In E ngland a monk named Roger Bacon worked on improving the gun powder to make the rockets fly farther.In France Jean Froissart found out that you can shoot rockets more accurately by shooting the rockets out of tubes. In Italy Joanes de Fontana made a water skimming torpedo that was used for setting enemy boats on fire. Rockets and Science, Sir. Newton did a lot of studying on how gravity works and found his three laws of motion witch help people advance rockets and find out how rockets would do in outer space. Newton’s law then had a great influence on the shape and the look of rockets. In about 1720 a Dutch professor designed a car with a steam propelled jet engine.Germany and Russia began working with rockets with a mass of more than 45 kilograms. Some of these rockets were so powerful that their escaping exhaust flames made holes in the ground even before it got to leave the ground. During the late 18th century to the 19th century. The success of Indian rockets against the B ritish in 1792 and 1799 it caught the eye of artillery expert Colonel William Congreve he then set out to design the rockets for the British government his rockets then became highly successful in battle.Used by British ships in the War of 1812 they inspired Francis Scott Key to write â€Å"the rockets' red glare,† later know as The Star- Spangled Banner. The devastating nature of war rockets was not their accuracy or power, but their numbers. In a single battle thousand of them would be fired. An Englishman, William Hale, developed a technique called spin stabilization. In this method let escaping exhaust gases to strike a small vane at the bottom of the rocket causing it to spin witch is still used to day.

Problem Solving Paper Essay

There are many steps in solving any problem at hand. People think that it is an easy process, unfortunately it’s not. A process was created in aiding in overcoming obstacles that may arise whenever an individual has to solve a problem. Solving any problem requires creativity in finding exactly what the challenge is in order to find a remedy to the problem. Throughout this paper, I will discuss the numerous stages in the creative process and select a personal challenge that I had to deal with throughout my life and venture through the creative process in order to solve the problem. Brainstorming is very important when it comes to solving a problem. By brainstorming it allows an individual to have many remedies to a problem no matter how difficult it may be. A person’s mind must be creative but in order for it to accomplish this there must be a challenge. Looking at chapter 5 of the course textbook I found that there are four stages of the creative process which are searching for challenges, expressing the problem, investigating the problem, and producing ideas. Stage one- searching for challenges: Serving my four years in the United States Marine Corps provided me with a challenge when it came to leading and solving problems quickly. One of my personal challenges that I had to deal with was when I was in Manama, Bahrain. I was a team leader with second fleet antiterrorism security team also known as FAST. We were tasked with having to provide security at the United States embassy. Upon arrival I knew that we were going to be faced with some challenges. I was a squad leader in charge of 25 Marines under me. In the military there is no point in planning because at the end of the day  plans fail and a person must improvise. Five days into providing embassy security my guys under me including myself was getting very sick from going outside into the heat and coming back into the freezing air of the embassy. I quickly had to make a decision on what I had to do to solve the problem fast. I set up a three-day post rotation splitting half my guys located at the outside and the other half located at post inside. I did this so it would minimize the exposure to the temperature changes that we were dealing with. A decision had to be made quickly on what needed to be done because protest was taking place outside the walls of the embassy and there could not be a lack when it came to security. Stage two- expressing the problem: For an individual to express a problem it takes a lot. At times it can be very difficult to point out a problem because of fear of getting into trouble. Bringing the issue up of my guys getting sick to leadership was a bit of a challenge because the Marine Corps do not like weak leaders. Leadership expects professionalism out of the squad leaders and they must depend on squad leaders to make good sound decisions. When I looked at the issue at hand it was a no-brainer I knew I would probably look weak but I was making a smart decision. If I wouldn’t had made a decision to prevent my guys from getting sick there would have been a lapse in security and that was an issue that was unacceptable to me and my leadership. Expressing the problem to my leadership gave me the confidence to go through with the plan and feel like I did the right thing. Stage three- investigating the problem: Looking at the problem I knew that it would be easy to implement the fix but I had to see if it was going to actually work. Now that we knew that going in and out of certain temperatures would make people sick we would know how to set up security positions with personnel that was available. The first three days didn’t go so well but after four days I noticed a dramatic difference in in the welfare of my Marines, including me. When I came to my leadership with the problem at hand and proposed the fix, they told me to really look at the problem and see if my plan would work. Upon investigation I concluded that the problem was fixed even though it took a little sacrificing. Fortunately, at the end of the day there was never a lapse in security and leadership was happy. Stage four- producing ideas: When coming up with a solution to the problem I checked with the leadership to make sure it was okay to implement my plan. Leadership told me not to over think the problem at hand, just come up with a quick fix to the problem considering we were only here for six months. Producing many ideas helped me have a choice of what I wanted to do. For an individual to come up with more than one idea gives an individual a broader choice, which makes solving a problem a whole lot easier. Being a leader is not hard to do; it’s about coming up with ideas, implementing them and leading from the front with integrity. Conclusion: Looking at and implementing each stage of the creative process gave me the opportunity to come up with a solution to the problem at hand. Making the right decision was important for me because it showed my leadership that I could perform under pressure. The creative process made me think of many ideas to the problem and what I had to do to fix the problem. If I would not have used the creative process the issue would not have been resolved. When you ask other people what their opinion is on an idea it shows a willingness to fix a problem at hand. Brainstorming is critical because it helps you come up with a solution and gives the individual many ideas on what they can do to fix the problem. Without the critical thinking process it would be difficult when it comes to solving problems. People depend on other people, but as long as you go through the steps of the creative thinking process anyone can find a fix to any problem that they may face in life. References Ruggiero, V.R. (2009). The Art of Thinking: A guide to critical and creative thought (9th ed.). Retrieved from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database.

The Sociological Perspectives Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Sociological Perspectives - Essay Example The functionalist perspective views the world as a set of groups that coexist based on mutual need and cooperation. It is through this means that society is able to reach and maintain equilibrium. Durkheim, Comte, and Spencer pioneered this sociological perspective, but Robert Merton elaborated on the theory. He viewed societal consequences as being manifest, latent, and latent dysfunctional. Manifest functions are the positive and intended outcome of a group on society. Latent functions are the unintended consequences that help society maintain order. The latent dysfunctions are unintended negative results that continually upset and shape society. Our family was lower middle class and as such we filled the role of working in the factories and the mills. In return society provided us with adequate income and substantial opportunities. In doing so, our social class fulfilled its function and was rewarded by other groups in society through peaceful coexistence Karl Marx, the most well known conflict theorist, viewed the world as groups that were competing for the available resources. He generally defined conflict in terms of wealth and saw it as two classes; the bourgeoisie (capitalists) and the proletariat (workers).

Identify and discuss in details organisation skills, artistic Essay

Identify and discuss in details organisation skills, artistic &creative skills, social skills and communication skills which the staff must be exposed to in a one week staff training programme - Essay Example This essay will focus on the organizational, communication, social, creative and artistic skills that employees should be exposed to in such a training program. Effective communication skills that are of high scale are very vital in an organization in the modern world. They help in coping with the stiff competition that organizations are facing from all scopes of life. Effective communication highly relies on the type of communication skills that one possesses. It involves engaging the most appropriate communication channel, presentation of the information to the targeted audience, skills to understand fully, and easily responses made by the audience as well as having the technical expertise of using the chosen channel of communication (Worth, 2009 pg 45). Self-development, Interpersonal skills, cooperation, mutual understanding, as well as trust are significant in setting a concluded channel of effective communications skills. There are three types of communication skills that corporates can instill in their staffs. They include expressive skills, listening skills as well as management skills meant for controlling the whole process of communication. In addition, emotional skills are also very fundamental since they determine the fate of all the other three skills mentioned above. Expressive skills help in conveying messages to the other people by use of facial expressions, words, and body languages. On the other hand, listening skills are the skills employed primarily so as to get information and messages from the other people (Worth, 2009 pg 55). They help in making the speaker understand his or her audience feelings and thoughts towards him or her and more so, understanding the audience more closely. Communication management skills help in recognizing the needed information, and create a strong hold on the present rules of interaction and communication. Equipping staffs or members

Shah Jahan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Shah Jahan - Essay Example It is after emerging victorious in these battles that Shah got a new title, Shah Jahan which is translated to mean the ‘world’s king’ (Lefevre n.p.). Besides getting this title, Shah Jahan went on to rise in the military rank and was honoured as a prince. Later, Shah rebelled against his father Jahangir’s power proved too much, and Khurram was forced to submit to the administration. However, upon the death of Jahangir in 1627, Shah went on to succeed the Mughal, and was accorded more titles including ‘the Lord of Auspicious Conjunctions’’ (Cleveland & Burton, 44). Shah Jahan’s ascension to power did not mark the end of war; Bir Singh’s son called Jujhar Singh rebelled against Shah’s administration, but did not last long. Khan Jahan provided the other rebellion against Shah, but like Jujhar, Khan was killed at Fort Kalanjar (Begley, p.167) Shah Jahan’s achievements were not limited to the battlefield, but he built other structures including Taj Mahal. Classified among the Seven Wonders of the World, Taja Mahal was built by Shah Jahan as a way of commemorating his first wife, Mumtaz mahal whose demise occurred due to postpartum haemorrhage (Cleveland & Burton, 47). Even though Shah Jahan’s end was not as pleasant as his beginning, the achievements in his life are evident and tremendous (Lambourn, p.213). In 1657, Aurangzeb, Jahan’s son took advantage of his illness and took over power. He went on send his father into confinement until his death in 1666 (Dale, Begley &Desai,

Management Strategies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Management Strategies - Essay Example This can, in part, be contributed to past analysis which has effected in a study of decision making behaviour. This analysis by various scholars has depicted the fact that decisions regarding risky organisational decisions brings out contradictory reactions. Here, we can find the essence of the dichotomy that risk taking strikes as a major aspect of business activities. Risk, in case of such decisions, is seen as a focus of single determinants of behaviour arising from risk theories. Although this approach does not conform to real life situations in an obvious fashion, it has led to potentially inaccurate conclusions about risk behaviour. Such unresolved contradictions can be reconciled by examining the usefulness of placing risk propensity and risk proportion in a more central role than has been previously recognised. Based on such analysis, it is believed that the propensity of risk dominates both the actual and perceived characteristics of the situation as a determinant of risk behaviour. Such an observation can safely justify the finding that suggests that apart from being central to any and every business or organisation, risk is something that entrepreneurs in general, are averse to. This brings us to a discussion on business and kinds of risks. Business can be conducted in any sphere of the earth - literally. Today we have a plethora of businesses on land apart from the ones on water and in air. Apart from the normal business activities, one can find airlines and maritime organisations emerging as major sectors. If we are to take the example of maritime, it is the oldest sector in terms of innovation and discoveries. There have been perils to overcome, risks to undertake, more powerful vessels to make each time, and even more powerful contracts to insure and protect the maritime entrepreneurs, as we are going to refer to these 'shipmen' in the course of this paper. Marina organisations today have spread their wings beyond mere cargo vessels and are now running good profits in the sphere of luxury liners, etc. With risks and businesses come allied industries. Insurance and financial risk management are major industries that thrive side by side with any sector in the world, for there is no area that has been spared the occurrence of risks and accidents as well as catastrophes. Maritime activities hold the promise of enormous risks, which can be analysed in its various aspects as follows, from the insurance point of view: Type and size of boats using the marina New industries established in adjacent areas Changes in the international and national regulatory environment Marina 3 Aging of the marina infrastructure Recent waterfront development Changes in response to equipment, technology and availability Logistics Identification of human and natural resources Trends in political climate and global economy These points besides being self explanatory are relevant in context of the current state of affairs. They have every potentiality of developing from minor to major crises, which explains the development and growth of the field of financial risk management. This can be attributed to the fact that at the end of the day, any loss has financial implications of its own and is deeply rooted in the genesis of risk taking and management. The above mentioned points, with a strong background of financial

Shareholding versus Stakeholding Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Shareholding versus Stakeholding - Assignment Example After suitable measures to overcome the conflict have been taken, the business climate of the enterprise will be readily acceptable by the public investing in the shares of the company. This may indirectly raise the prices of the shares, leading to the generating of profit of the shareholders. Another reason for the rise of the difference between the stakeholders and the shareholders is the lack of protection rendered to the third party. Thus it is very important for the managers to pay heed to the rising differences between the stakeholders and shareholders of the company. But the main issue that the company faces is whether to use single value objective function or balanced scorecard (Siems, 2007, p.180). The challenges faced by managers to be ‘socially responsible’ In the process of being socially responsible, managers face a few challenges, for example the process of value seeking rather than value maximizing. Therefore, through the achievement of the value seeking f unction, the confusion that leads to maximizing the value is difficult to overcome, as the way the world is structured is quite complicated. Under no situation can the maximization of the value of the managers be guaranteed, but the assurance can be given that the movement of the managers is in the right direction. The absence of the negative externalities in the input factor market does not lead to the rise in the opportunity cost of the firm. If the firm is still earning the social cost of the company, this may result in the dilemma caused to the managers during the performance of the social responsibilities. Self-serving manager exploiting social responsibility for his/her personal gain Sometimes the managers of the companies with a purpose of performing the social responsibilities tend to serve their personal gains. The reason behind this is the use of the stakeholder’s theory, through which the personal short run-interests of the shareholders are accomplished. Since a be tter criterion cannot be provided, the proper evaluation of the managers is not possible. Thus, by the application of the shareholders theory, the managers pursue their own interest at the expense of the firm’s financial claimants and the society at large. The directors and the managers use the resources of the firm for their own needs, such as art, medical research, etc. without being held liable for the expenditures caused to the company. As with the practice of the stakeholder theory the internal control system of the company is being hampered, hence arguments are being placed for the government intervention – anti-takeover provisions, for example – in these areas (Letza S., et al., 2004, p.247). Budgeting and strategic management accounting tools as an encouragement for shareholder or stakeholder centric focus Such accounting tools as budgeting and the strategic management, Balanced Scorecard, and the others had been a helpful encouragement in the focusing o n the shareholders and the stakeholders of the concerned country. These tools help decide to what standard the company should stick to avoid neglecting the interests of both the shareholders and the stakeholders of the company. With tools like budgeting and strat

Changes in Public Speaking from Ancient Greece to Modernity Research Paper

Changes in Public Speaking from Ancient Greece to Modernity - Research Paper Example While crowds today may reach into the billions, speakers today are equipped with microphones, television, internet, and radio to reach the people. In Greece, the speaker not only had to have the passion for his subject but also had to have the ability to remember long quotes and ideas and to be able to amplify their voice for a long enough time to get their ideas across. Today, speakers can depend on note cards and prepared speeches, while Greeks had to rely solely on their memories. Today, unlike then, speakers are also not required to write their own speeches, and in fact, may not know the material until they step in front of a microphone. Effective speaking requires that the speaker be clear in what they are saying, and look and act convincingly. Eye movement, gesturing, even the subtle shifts of the person talking are all subject to interpretation by the listeners. While the movement of the speaker has mattered throughout history, it is only contemporarily that it can be shown, again and again, allowing an endless reinterpretation of meaning. Speaking before recording allowed the speaker to speak with passion, and while mistakes were still not desired, they were more forgivable. A grammatical mistake, for example, would be corrected in the speech was actually written down. Today, those same errors are lauded over the speaker and are used as ways to discredit them. Greeks did not permit women to speak publicly, and also had a unique way of stopping people who were not interesting enough. If the speaker lost the attention of the people, they were physically dragged off of the stage by the watchers. Today, we are required to sit politely by and let them finish out their speech or change the channel on the television. Public speaking was one of the most important skills an Athenian had. According to Nancy Harper: For many years, the Athenian could not hire a professional to speak for him in court. Each Athenian jury consisted of several hundred persons, and the citizen, whether the accuser or the accused, had to use his ability as a public speaker to persuade a majority of the jury to believe in his side of the case. Because lawsuits were common in Athens, legal speaking became the central concern of early communication instruction. (Warren 2)

In light of initiatives to promote improved regulation at a local Essay

In light of initiatives to promote improved regulation at a local level, critically evaluate the role of food industry self regulation in the future - Essay Example The political parties are actively taking part to propose changes in the UK’s Food Safety Enforcement to protect the consumers and to ensure the compliance of the companies to the effective enforcement system (Jukes, 1993). Although a number of key reforms were made in UK’s food safety regulatory structure in 2002 however, most of these reforms dealt with the changes in the central government arrangement for hygienic and safe food rather than local enforcement. In this report, the self regulation of food industry in the context of its role in future has been discussed. The degree to which an organisation is responsible to manage risks depends on the nature of business. However, in a food industry, the responsibility of the organisation increases because the user of the product manufactured by the food company is at risk. Therefore, the self regulation of food industry is highly encouraged nowadays as compared to other industries. Industry self-regulation is a process that involves an industry – level organisation setting rules and standards with regard to the conduct of firms within the respective industry, (Gunningham and Rees, 1997). In other words, the industry associations or the companies should come up with the policies and minimum standards to avoid risk. In 2002, when the reforms in food safety enforcement of UK were made, the local enforcement remained untouched because it was being considered that state was responsible to ensure the minimum standards and the role of the individual businesses was overlooked. However, nowadays, it is being considered as the responsibility of both the state and the individual companies to determine how the risk can be managed and because of this reason the self regulation of UK food industry has increased. In short, government regulation and self-regulation are not mutually exclusive but rather a part of a continuum or put differently, complementary

The State Council as the central government plays a highly important Essay

The State Council as the central government plays a highly important role in Chinas law making process. Discuss - Essay Example The council administers the local and the international government plan and hence is a general body which holds the entire responsibility of serving the public and the country collectively1. The State Council of China is a public administration body. It is an institution which is on the highest level of administration. The members of the State Council consist of premiers, vice premiers, ministers, commissioners, general-auditors and secretary generals with a bench to form for public administration and public health service2. Security and education are part of the political system objectives and hence are covered up by the state council in respective means. All areas are under one master plan, and policies are circulated by the â€Å"State Council† for further operation. The State Council is directly connected to NPC (National People’s Congress) for passing decisions and legislation of activities. The State Council associates â€Å"National People’s Congress† and the rest of the standing committees for work order, work plan and administration3. Being on the highest level of administration, The State Council is responsible for the following functions; enactment of public level legislations, responding to top level ministries and to the local bodies, responding to commissioning authorities, formulation of social development plan, formulation of economic development plan, formulation of public health service plan, formulation of foreign policies and foreign affairs, implementing judicial legislations and vice versa4. Being a central body of command and being on top administrative function, the State Council responds with a legal way of proceeding. It applies legislative apprehensions to manage and control the governance system of the country. In China which is a Capitalist State, the law making process is under the State Council administration. This is to ensure a government system where public rights are fulfilled,

Enterprise Architecture Essay Example for Free

Enterprise Architecture Essay 1) The three key disciplines used to effectively construct a Foundation of Execution are: Operating Model This dictates the level of business process integration and standardization for delivering goods and services to customers. Process Integration depicts the extent to which business units share data and enables end-to-end and a single interface for the customer The Operating Model involves a commitment to how the company will operate Enterprise Architecture This is the organizing logic for business processes and IT infrastructure which reflects the integration and standardization requirements of the company’s operating model. The Enterprise Architecture provides a long term view of a company’s process, systems, and technologies in order to build long term sustainable capabilities. IT Engagement Model The IT Engagement Model is the governance mechanism that ensures business and IT projects achieve both local and companywide objectives. This Model influences projects decisions ensuring that individual solutions are designed according to the enterprise architecture. The IT Engagement Model provides alignment between IT and the business objectives of projects. 2) The Enterprise Architecture communicates the high-level business process and IT requirements of a company’s operating model. This differs from IT Architecture to the degree of granularity that is presented. Enterprise Architecture does not provide the necessary details to map out technical or process design requirements. The IT Architecture developed by the IT unit is a more detailed architecture of applications, data and information, and technology. IT Architecture when developed with a clear understanding of the Enterprise Architecture provides long-term value because they provide the long-term vision for immediate solutions. 3) The current market trends and speed at which technology and the competitive landscape is constantly changes make it difficult for companies  to be able to adapt and survive. Complex Information systems restrain companies from being able to adapt in order to compete or leverage new technology and concepts. Companies without a solid foundation face the following risks: The effects of growing complexity on business operations The pressure that agility places the foundation of execution Role of business discipline in current national and political environments Role of costs in absence of foundation of execution Business agility increasingly depends on a Foundation of Execution. Implementing standardize, digitized processes results in simpler technology environments, lower cost operations and greater agility. 4) An operating model has two dimensions: business process standardization and integration. Companies are characterized into the following Operating Models: Diversification: Low Standardization, Low Integration Coordination: Low Standardization, High Integration Replication: High Standardization, Low Integration Unification: High Standardization, High Integration Examples: a. Unification Model – Delta Airlines Consisted of many IT platforms unable to communicate with each other Management and IT staff reached a common understanding of what capabilities the company would develop to support future strategies. In order to create a clear vision management defined four core processes. b. Diversification Model – Carlson Companies Each of Carlson’s portfolio of companies run more or less independently of each other. Carlson’s enterprise architecture core diagram shares technical infrastructure services while the business units retain control over local business processes and IT applications c. Coordination Model – MetLife MetLife’s strategy and operating model focused on providing integrated customer service across products. This required extraction of customer information and making it centrally available d. Replication Model – ING DIRECT ING DIRECT’s service modules digitize standardized processes across its business units. The identification of major service categories helps management understand existing capabilities and target new opportunities. 5) The four stages of Architecture Maturity are: Business Silo Architecture: where companies look to maximize individual business unit needs or functional needs Standardized Technology Architecture: providing IT efficiencies through technology standardization and, in most cases, increased centralization of technology management Optimized core architecture: provides companywide data and process standardization as appropriate for the operating model Business Modularity Architecture: where companies manage and reuse loosely coupled IT-enabled business process components to preserve global standards while enabling local differences 6) The strategic implications of the four architecture stages are as follows: Business Silos – Local / Functional optimization Standardized Technology / IT efficiency Optimized core / Business Operational efficiency Business Modularity / Strategic Agility 7) The three main ingredients 0f the IT Engagement Model: Companywide IT governance: decision rights and accountability framework to encourage desirable behavior in the use of IT Project management: formalized  project methodology, with clear deliverables and regular checkpoints Linking mechanisms: processes and decision-making bodies that align incentives and connect the project-level activities to the overall IT governance. 8) IT governance is the decision rights and accountability framework for encouraging desirable behaviors in the use of IT. IT governance reflects broader corporate governance principles while focusing on the management and use of IT to achieve corporate performance goals. IT governance encompasses five major decision areas related to the management and use of IT in a firm, all of which should be driven by the operating model: I. IT principles: high level decisions about the strategic role of IT in the business II. Enterprise architecture: the organizing logic for business processes and IT infrastructure III. IT infrastructure: centrally coordinated, shared IT services providing part of the foundation of execution IV. Business application needs: business requirements for purchased or internally developed IT applications that both use and build the foundation for execution V. Prioritization and investment: decisions about how much and where to invest in IT, including project approval and justification techniques. 9) Linking mechanisms is the third essential ingredient of the IT engagement model. Linking mechanisms connect companywide governance and projects. Good IT governance ensures that there’s clear direction on how to evolve the company’s foundation. Good project management ensures that projects are implemented effectively, efficiently, and in a consistent manner to maximize learning. Good linking mechanisms ensure that projects incrementally build the company’s foundation and that the design of the company’s foundation is informed by projects. There are three types of linking mechanisms (architecture linkage, business linkage, and alignment linkage) that address the key alignment and coordination concerns of the company. Architecture Linkage establishes and updates standards, reviews projects for compliance, and approves exceptions. Architecture linkage connects the IT governance decisions about architecture with project design decisions. Business linkage ensures that business goals are translated effectively into project  goals. Business linkage coordinates projects, connects them to larger transformation efforts, and focuses projects on attacking specific problems in the best possible way. Alignment linkage mechanisms ensure ongoing communication and negotiation between IT and business concerns. Business IT relationship mangers and Business unit CIOs are typically a critical linkage fro translating back and forth between business goals and IT constraints. 10) The three ingredients of engagement that create business value are IT governance, Project management and Linking mechanisms. Clear, specific, and actionable objectives: In order to be effective, IT engagement models clarify strategic objectives so standardization and integration requirements are clear. Motivation to meet company goals: Formal incentives such as bonus plans, annual reviews, etc help ensure focus from business unit leaders and project managers on company, business unit and project goals Enforcement authority: Formal enforcements such as complementary to formal incentives help build an effort’s credibility. Enforcement provides a process for changing, discontinuing, or granting an exception to a project that is not compliant with the target enterprise architecture. Early Intervention and prevention: In order to prevent bad solutions form being deigned, IT groups engage with business projects during the earliest stages of development to prevent bad solutions from being designed in the first place and also to learn how to improve target architecture. Transparent, regular, two-way communication: Good engagement ensures that everyone is clear on how the model works. Alignment and coordination are achieved and maintained through regular dialogue between business and IT and across business units.

The Optical Time Domain Reflectometer Essay Example for Free

The Optical Time Domain Reflectometer Essay In fiber optic networks, OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectometer) is an opto-electronic instrument used to characterize an optical fiber. Unlike power meters OTDR does not measure loss, but instead implies it by looking at the backscatter signature of the fiber. Generally, OTDR are used to determine the loss of any part of a system, the length of the fiber and the distance between any points of interest. Most of the light which is sent to the fiber can be detected at the other end, but a part of it is always absorbed or scattered. Absorption and scattering are caused by imperfections of fiber, small grains of dirt, for instance. Scattering means that light is not absorbed but it is just sent in different angle after it hits small particles in optical fiber (Figure 1). Some of the light is scattered to the direction it came from. This is called backscattering. Backscattering forms the basis to the use of the optical time domain reflectometry. Figure 1 Rayleigh –scattering in optical fiber Optical time domain reflectometry is based on scattering and reflections. OTDR sends an optical pulse to the fiber and measures the received backscattering. The signal which is received consists naturally only of scattering and reflections of pulse which was sent. By interpreting signal as a function of time OTDR can draw an attenuation of a fiber as a function of distance. Theory of the OTDR Optical time domain reflectometry measures backscattering as a function of time and graph is then drawn as a function of distance (Figure 2). The graph represents the power of signal which the detector of the OTDR receives. The graph of fiber probed by OTDR consists of two spikes with gradually decreasing line between them. The line between spikes is decreasing because the received signal is decreased as a function of distance in accordance with attenuation coefficient of fiber. At the both ends of fiber reflection is large (Fresnel reflection) which creates spikes to the graph. Length of the fiber can therefore be measured from the width of the graph. Figure 2 OTDR signal as a function of distance An OTDR trace is a graphical representation of optical changes or events on a fiber. An event could be a splice, optical connector, a bend, a break, or just normal backscattered light from the fiber itself. In the OTDR trace faults for instance, are shown as a drop in the power of received signal (Figure 3). Size of a drop depends on an amount of power that is lost due to the component. The lost power represents of course the attenuation of component. Components and faults in fiber are either reflective or nonreflective. Reflective components create a spike to the graph of OTDR the same way as the both ends of fiber do. With nonreflective components there are no spikes because no excess light is reflected back. In most cases reflective attenuation is caused by connectors or other passive components and nonreflective attenuation is usually caused by fusion splice or similar fault in fiber. Figure 3 Attenuation of different faults Figure 4 OTDR Trace Information The slope of the OTDR trace shows the attenuation coefficient of the fiber and is calibrated in dB/km by the OTDR (Figure 4). Whereby, The height of that peak will indicate the amount of reflection at the event, unless it is so large that it saturates the OTDR receiver. Then the peak will have a flat top and tail on the far end, indicating the receiver was overloaded. Sometimes, the loss of a good fusion splice will be too small to be seen by the OTDR. Thats good for the system but can be confusing to the operator. It is very important to know the lengths of all fiber in the network so that the operator is not confused by unusual events. Reflective pulses show the resolution of the OTDR. Two events which are closer than the pulse width cannot be seen. Generally longer pulse widths are used to be able to see farther along the cable plant and narrower pulses are used when high resolution is needed, although it limits the distance the OTDR can see. The Dead Zone Dead zones originate from reflective events (connectors, mechanical splices, etc.) along the link, and they affect the OTDR’s ability to accurately measure attenuation on shorter links and differentiate closely spaced events, such as connectors in patch panels, etc. When the strong optical reflection from such an event reaches the OTDR, its detection circuit becomes saturated for a specific amount of time (converted to distance in the OTDR) until it recovers and can once again measure backscattering accurately. As a result of this saturation, there is a part of the fiber link following the reflective event that can not be â€Å"seen† by the OTDR. Analyzing the dead zone is very important to ensure the whole link is measured. Two types of dead zones are usually specified: 1. Event dead zone: This refers to the minimum distance required for consecutive reflective events to be â€Å"resolved†, i.e., to be differentiated from each other. If a reflective event is within the event dead zone of the preceding event, it will not be detected and measured correctly. Industry standard values range from 0.8 m to 5 m for this specification. Figure 5 Common OTDR with 3 m event dead zone 2. Attenuation dead zone: This refers to the minimum distance required, after a reflective event, for the OTDR to measure a reflective or non-reflective event loss. To measure short links and to characterize or find faults in patchcords and leads, the shortest possible attenuation dead zone is best. Industry standard values range from 3 m to 10 m for this specification. To overcome the problem of dead zones, usually a patchcord of about 100 m is added at the beginning of the system. As a result, all lauch dead zone problems have finished before the fiber (which is to be tested) is reached. Ghosts When testing short cables with highly reflective connectors, it is likely to encounter ghosts like in Figure 6. These are caused by the reflected light from the far end connector reflecting back and forth in the fiber until it is attenuated to the noise level. Ghosts are very confusing, as they seem to be real reflective events like connectors, but will not show any loss. If a reflective event in the trace is found at a point where there is not supposed to be any connection, but the connection from the launch cable to the cable under test is highly reflective, look for ghosts at multiples of the length of the launch cable. Figure 6 OTDR Ghosts Resolution of the OTDR Consider that light travels 1 m every 5 ns in the fiber, so a pulsewidth of 100 ns would extend for a distance of 20 m. When the light reaches an event, such as a connector, the light is reflected. The reflection appears to be a 20 m pulse on the OTDR. However, if two events are separated by a distance of 10 m or less (Figure 7), the two reflections will overlap and join up in returning to the OTDR. Figure 7 Thus the OTDR will display the two events as one event and the loss at each event is not detected, instead the sum of losses at both events will be shown on the OTDR. Choosing a shorter pulsewidth may give a better resolution but in turn resulting a low energy content (causing shorter detection range). Besides using a shorter pulse which will provide the required range, a tool that is called a â€Å"visual fault locator† can help too. The visual fault locator injects a bright red laser light into the fiber to find faults. If there is a high loss, such as a bad splice, connector or tight bend stressing the fiber, the light lost may be visible to the naked eye. This will resolve event which is close to the OTDR or close to another event that are not resolvable to the OTDR. The limitation of this tool is about 4 km.

DNA Tranlession Polymerase in Prokaryotic Cells

DNA Tranlession Polymerase in Prokaryotic Cells DNA Tranlession Polymerase in prokaryotic cells: History, structures and function Soheil Malekpour DNA is one of the most important part of the cell that gives cell integrity and character. This part of the cell can be exposed to different kinds of damages that may put the cells integrity in jeopardy. The only part of the cell that has this ability to be repaired is DNA. Basically repairing should be done due to a reasonable reason. Repairing the other macromolecules are not profitable. For example, if a defective protein forms, the protein can be simply be replaced by another one. But defects in DNA can cause problem in the whole cell organisms and the character of cell [1]. Usually the whole repairing process is happening fast, although there are defects that persist against this process. The repairing process is done by special polymerases and the whole process of DNA repair is called translesion DNA synthesis (TLS) [2]. DNA can be damaged due to different reasons, such as base modification, elimination or addition of nucleotides, crosslinking of DNA strands and breakage of phosphodiester backbone [1]. These reasons can be due to some environmental conditions such as radiation or insertion of certain chemicals in to the body or due to malfunction of polymerases and enzymes in cellular process, such as putting wrong nucleotide in the DNA strand chain [1]. Up to now, it is known that there are three translesion DNA polymerases (TLS polymerases) in E. coli and about fifteen polymerases in eukaryotes that can run this process [2]. History For the first time it was in the early 1940s, that it was found agents causing mutational changes such as ionizing and radiation of UV, interact with cells and can damage their genome [3]. Also it was found that these cells can survive and recover from theses damages [4] and the term DNA repair was found. DNA repair is a biochemical term that defines biological processes during which alterations in the chemistry of DNA (DNA damage) are removed and the integrity of the genome is restored [3]. The first DNA repair mechanism to be discovered was enzymatic photo reactivation (EPR) [3]. This process is referred to the elimination of cyclobutane pyrimidine, which are generated by UV radiation and can block both DNA replication and transcription, from the genome [4]. This reaction can be catalyzed by photoreactivating enzyme in a reaction that needs a visible range light. The second mechanism found was excision repair [3]. This mechanism is referred to DNA damages cut out from genome that leaves some gaps in DNA duplex. These gaps are repaired by a non-semiconservative mode of DNA synthesis called repair synthesis [5]. By the end of the 1970s, it was known that cells are using various mechanisms for DNA repair process that focus around two basic principles: the excision of base damage or its direct reversal such as EPR [3]. In the mid1970s Miroslav Radman proposed a new hypothesis called SOS hypothesis [5, 6]. TheSOS hypothesis proposes an overall response to DNA damage in which thecell cycleis stopped andDNA repairis induced. Genetics experiments demonstrated that main players involved in damage-induced mutagenesis are lexA, recA along with umuD and umuC [2]. LexA cleavage from recA* and also umuD cleavage that form umuD use the same mechanism and is an absolute requirement for SOS mutagenesis. For showing that, E. coli because of its simple structure was used as a model for translesion DNA synthesis and mutagenesis. Later Harrison Echols proposed another model and suggested that in order to help the replication process against the lesions it is possible to reduce the fidelity of proteins so when DNA replication process is stopped at a location of unrepaired DNA damage, certain SOS-regulated genes can encode proteins that interact with the hindered replication process in a manner that reduces their fidelity [3]. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, it was demonstrated that Echols genes are in fact specialized low-fidelity DNA polymerases that enhance low-fidelity replication across the lesion, the so-called translesion DNA synthesis (TLS) [3]. Their highly reduced fidelity allows the replicative bypass of sites of DNA damage, but with a high chance of combining incorrect nucleotides [5]. Early TLS models and PolV Bridges and Woodgate were the first ones who defined the function of Umu proteins during UV-induced TLS in 1985 [7]. According to them, TLS happened in two steps. In the first step Pol III add a nucleotide opposite the first (3†²) T of a T-T cytidine diphosphate diacylgelycerol (CPD). Bounding a RecA protein to the template proximal to the lesion is a requirement for this step. In the second step, Pol III interacts with UmuDC proteins to incorporate another nucleotide at the second (5†²) T of the cytidine diphosphate diacylgelycerol (CPD). At least one of these two steps are non-WC, causing a mutation targeted at the site of the CPD [2]. Figure 1 shows the process schematically. Another model was proposed by Echols and Goodman in 1990 [3]. In this model they proposed that when Pol III encounters a template lesion, its holoenzymes (Pol III core, beta sliding clamp, gamma-clamp-loading complex) are completely blocked. This process follows by the assembly of a damage localized nucleoprotein complex involving RecA, UmuC, UmuD†², SSB, and Pol III holoenzyme, a mutasome, to copy past a template lesion [2]. The fact that RecA* simplifies the cleavage of UmuD to UmuD was used in this model [8]. Later, it was demonstrated that it was actually a dimeric UmuD2 that is cleaved to UmuD2 and that next interacts with UmuC to form a stable complex of UmuD2C [9]. This complex was named as Pol V in 1999 by Tang et al. [10]. It can be said that genome replication done on undamaged DNA by Pol III is rapid and error-free [11], the TLS process carried out by mutasome is slow and error-prone [2]. A key feature of the mutasome model is the assembly of RecA* on ssDNA proximal to the lesion (Fig. 1). When a replication fork encounters a lesion, an uncoupling of leading-and lagging-strand synthesis may ensue. Then, one of the TLS Pols can replace Pol III on the ÃŽ ²- clamp and copy the damaged DNA [2]. For both leading and lagging strands it be easily seen that RecA* can be assembled on the form of template strand, proximal to lesion. If the lesion occurred in the leading strand, RecA filaments can be formed on a region of ssDNA that is created by DNA unwinding by DnaB helicase downstream from the lesion but if lesions exist in lagging strand ssDNA is present as a result of Okazaki fragment synthesis [2]. Schlacher and Goodman [12] showed RecA* act in trans form on a non-template ssDNA strand and this transactivation of PolV by RecA* to perform TLS happens in-vitro. And this lead to the PolV mutasome model of TLS (Fig. 1). Jiang et al. [13] demonstrated this new PolV form as PolV Mut = UmuD2C-RecA-ATP. PolV Mut has this ability to copy both damaged and undamaged DNA (e.g. performs TLS) when RecA* is not present [2]. So, the straight role of RecA* in SOS-mediated TLS is to transfer a RecA molecule from the 3†²-filament tip with a molecule of ATP to convert into Pol V Mut, that can cross a different number of DNA lesions on its own. (Fig. 1) [2, 14]. PolV Mut can have two conformations. One is activated form that can copy DNA, the other one is deactivated form that is unable to copy the DNA. The activation of PolV Mut is depended on the location of RecA-ATP bond to the polymerase subunits UmuD2 and UmuC [13]. By representing the RecA* again, the deactivated form of PolV Mut can be activated. In this case, the old RecA-ATP is substituted by a new RecA-ATP from the 3-filament tip [13]. This type of switching on and off is unique to this kind of polymerase and has not been seen in other types of polymerases. This method can be useful specially preventing the undamaged DNA to go under mutation in E.Coli, and give the cell this power to activate Pol V Mut whenever replication fork have stuck at DNA template damage site [2]. PolII and PolIV in E.Coli TLS PolII discovered in 1970[15]. At first, it was thought that mutation is non-informative in PolII [16]. Pol II has an activity isolated from UV-irradiated cells that has this ability to replicate past abasic template lesions [2, 17]. This polymerase has some responses to UV radiation and this activity derives from that [2]. By purification it was proved that the induced lesion-copying protein was Pol II [17]. In 1980, Kenyon and Walker [18] discovered a DNA damage-inducible gene called dinA that can encode PolII. Also, one of the features of PolII is bypassing N2-deoxyguanosine-acetyl aminofluorene (AAF) adducts, this behavior can be error-free and produces 2-frame shift mutations [19]. AAF adducts are of family of aromatic amides that induce frame shift mutations within GpC sequences, such as the NarI sequences [19]. These adducts are able to increase the GC dinucleotide loss in NarI sequence (CGCGCC) by 107 times when they are bound to the G in middle of sequence [20]. PolII and Pol V can complement each other, but it does not mean that their activities are functionally unneeded [21]. As Pham et al. [21] mentioned PolV job is to copy UV-damaged DNA in an error-prone manner in TLS. But Pol II is able to copy chromosomal DNA in an error-free replication process. Kenyon and walker also introduced another gene called dinB gene that can be induced by cellular SOS response to DNA damage [18]. For many years, the function of this gene was unknown. After some year Ohmori et al. [22] found other gene, dinP gene, in the same section that dinB gene was found and Wagner et al. showed that they are able to encode Y-family DNA PolIV [23]. This kind of polymerases like other polymerases used in TLS are not crucial for life. Their role is to bypass certain N2-dG adducts (such as N2-furfuryl-dG) in an error-free manner [2]. Kumari et al. demonstrated they can copy past N2-N2-guanine interstrand cross-links in a high fidelity manner [24]. Regulation of TLS polymerases Different polymerases have this ability to traverse an extensive range of DNA lesions but this ability may cause in reducing the fidelity during replicating the undamaged DNA. Usually cells have several mechanisms to check and control the TLS polymerases because except PolII, all of them has this potential to delete errors made when duplicating an undamaged DNA [2]. Usually no regulation is needed for PolII. Because it has high fidelity derived by high intrinsic 3-5 exonucleolytic proofreading. On the other hand, the Y-family polymerases such as PolIV and PolV are exo-nuclease deficient and needed to be controlled [2]. PolV activity can be regulated by many proteins and many ways. First as said before the UmuD should be activated by UmuD. All UmuD, UmuC and UmuD proteins are all exposed to degradation by Lon and ClpXP protease. RecA* that forms PolV Mut can interact with UmuD2C complexes and active them. The PolV Mut itself activity can be enhanced by binding to the ÃŽ ²-clamp [2]. As Wagner et al. showed the PolIV activity can be stimulated by protein interaction with RecA, UmuD and ÃŽ ²-clamp [25]. Although the main mechanisms of DNA repair by various polymerases are known now, more studies can be conducted on E.Coli cells to find more details about the regulation and side reactions happening in this process. E.Coli cells as simple cells are an appropriate model to analyze these functions. Jarosz et al. proposed well questions about the future studies on Y-family DNA polymerases [26]: (1)How do Y-family polymerases gain access to an appropriate primer terminus and how is their action coordinated with that of replicative polymerases? (2)How do protein–protein interactions regulate the activity of Y-family polymerases? (3)Are there families of cognate lesions for each different Y-family polymerase? (4) Can mutations introduced by Y-family polymerases be corrected by exonucleolytic proofreading in trans? Different polymerases act in different paces after the damaged. For example PolII is induced immediately after DNA damage but PolV is induced about 50 min after the damage [21]. An area of interest could be study on how they can be regulated to be induced in shorter time. References Horton, R. H., Moran, L. A., Perry, M. D., Rawn, D. J. and Scrimgeour, G. K. (2006)Principles of biochemistry. 4th edn. United States: Pearson Education (US). Goodman, M. F. and Woodgate, R. (2013) ‘Translesion DNA Polymerases’,Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, 5(10). doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a010363. Friedberg, E. C. (2008) ‘A brief history of the DNA repair field’,Cell Research, 18(1), pp. 3–7. doi: 10.1038/cr.2007.113. Hollaender, A. and Duggar, B. M. (1938) ‘The effects of sublethal doses of monochromatic ultraviolet radiation on the growth properties of bacteria’,Journal of Bacteriology, 36(1): 17-37. Friedberg EC, Walker GC, Siede W, Wood RD, Schultz RA, Ellenberger T. DNA Repair and Mutagenesis. Washington DC, ASM Press, 2005 Friedberg EC. Correcting the Blueprint of Life. An Historical Accounting of the Discovery DNA Repairing Mechanisms. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1997. Ruiz-Rubio, M., Woodgate, R., Bridges, B. A., Herrera, G. and Blanco, M. (1986) ‘New Role for Photoreversible Pyrimidine Dimers in Induction of Prototrophic Mutations in Excision-Deficient Escherichia coli by UV Light’,Journal of Bacteriology, 166(3): 1141-1143. Burckhardt, S. E., Woodgate, R., Scheuermann, R. H. and Echols, H. (1988) ‘UmuD mutagenesis protein of Escherichia coli: overproduction, purification, and cleavage by RecA.’,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 85(6), pp. 1811–1815. doi: 10.1073/pnas.85.6.1811. Woodgate, R., Rajagopalan, M., Lu, C. and Echols, H. (1989) ‘UmuC mutagenesis protein of Escherichia coli: purification and interaction with UmuD and UmuD’,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 86(19), pp. 7301–7305. doi: 10.1073/pnas.86.19.7301. Tang M, Shen X, Frank EG, O’Donnell M, Woodgate R, Goodman MF. UmuD2†²C is an error-prone DNA polymerase, Escherichia coli, DNA pol V. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1999; 96:8919–8924. Johnson A, O’Donnell M. Cellular DNA replicases: Components and dynamics at the replication fork. Annu Rev Biochem. 2005; 74:283–315 Schlacher K, Goodman MF. Lessons from 50 years of SOS DNA-damage-induced mutagenesis. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2007; 8:587–594 Jiang Q, Karata K, Woodgate R, Cox MM, Goodman MF. The active form of DNA polymerase V is UmuD2†²C-RecA-ATP. Nature. 2009; 460:359–363. Dutreix M, Moreau PL, Bailone A, Galibert F, Battista JR, Walker GC, Devoret R. New recA mutations that dissociate the various RecA protein activities in Escherichia coli provide evidence for an additional role for RecA protein in UV mutagenesis. J Bacteriol. 1989; 171:2415–2423. Knippers R. DNA polymerase II. Nature. 1970; 228:1050–1053. Foster PL, Gudmundsson G, Trimarchi JM, Cai H, Goodman MF. Proofreading-defective DNA polymerase II increases adaptive mutation in Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1995; 92:7951–7955. Bonner CA, Randall SK, Rayssiguier C, Radman M, Eritja R, Kaplan BE, McEntee K, Goodman MF. Purification and characterization of an inducible Escherichia coli DNA polymerase capable of insertion and bypass at abasic lesions in DNA. J Biol Chem. 1988; 263:18946–18952. Kenyon CJ, Walker GC. DNA-damaging agents stimulate gene expression at specific loci in Escherichia coli. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1980; 77:2819–2823. Napolitano, R., Janel-Bintz, R., Wagner, J. and Fuchs, R. P. P. (2000)All three SOS-inducible DNA polymerases (Pol II,Pol IV and Pol V) are involved in induced mutagenesis, The EMBO Journal, 19(29), pp. 6259-6265. Koffel-Schwartz, N., Verdier, J.-M., Bichara, M., Freund, A.-M., Daune, M. P. and Fuchs, R. P. P. (1984) ‘Carcinogen-induced mutation spectrum in wild-type, uvrA and umuC strains of Escherichia coli’,Journal of Molecular Biology, 177(1), pp. 33–51 Pham, P., Rangarajan, S., Woodgate, R. and Goodman, M. F. (2001) ‘Roles of DNA polymerases V and II in SOS-induced error-prone and error-free repair in Escherichia coli’,Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98(15), pp. 8350–8354. Ohmori H, Hatada E, Qiao Y, Tsuji M, Fukuda R. dinP, a new gene in Escherichia coli, whose product shows similarities to UmuC and its homologues. Mutat Res. 1995; 347:1-7. Wagner J, Gruz P, Kim SR, Yamada M, Matsui K, Fuchs RPP, Nohmi T. The dinB gene encodes a novel Escherichia coli DNA polymerase, DNA Pol IV, involved in mutagenesis. Mol Cell. 1999; 4:281–286. Kumari A, Minko IG, Harbut MB, Finkel SE, Goodman MF, Lloyd RS. Replication bypass of interstrand cross-link intermediates by Escherichia coli DNA polymerase IV. J Biol Chem. 2008; 283:27433–27437. Wagner J, Fujii S, Gruz P, Nohmi T, Fuchs RP. The ÃŽ ² clamp targets DNA polymerase IV to DNA and strongly increases its processivity. EMBO Rep. 2001; 1:484–488. Jarosz, D. F., Beuning, P. J., Cohen, S. E. and Walker, G. C. (2007) ‘Y-family DNA polymerases in Escherichia coli’,Trends in Microbiology, 15(2), pp. 70–77.

Literary Usage in Haroun and the Sea of Stories by Salman Rushdie Essay

Throughout Haroun and the Sea of Stories, Salman Rushdie provides a fundamental, yet intricate variety of literary usage. These instances of literary usage provide and framework of support for the text which is to follow and to further accentuate the smaller and unnoticeable details of the story in to vital parts which are necessary for better comprehension and understanding of the meaning of the upcoming events. Symbolism is the most commonly used and most imperative literary device used by Rushdie. 'With the land of Chup, on the dark side of Kahani?This looks like the doing of the leader of the Chupwalas, the Cult master of Bezaban.'(H.S.S. Pg 75) This statement from the text has a very symbolic meaning behind it, both in terms of the society featured in the book and of reality during the time, the book was written. This statement is symbolic in the respect that it is a statement, which confirms the presence of the antagonist and the force that is being opposed. The story states that Haroun has traveled to a world in a seemingly other dimension, known as Kahani where there are a people known as the Guppees, from the land of Gup who are very talkative and have a great amount of passion toward speech and words. However, the Chupwalas in the land of Chup are a people who live completely in the darkness, and do not speak as often or at all. It is symbolized as a gloomy place where sadness dwells in the hearts of every citizen. The leader of the Chupwalas, is symbolized as the ?evil? character or antagonist in the book and he is the reason which the protagonist of the story, Haroun, and the Gup, who are symbolized as ?good?, must fight back the evil of the cult master. The presence of a dark side of Gup itself is symbolic by itse... ...ard the other through misinformation or no information at all. This is also same within a single society. A person may put up mental barriers against other people or information on others, and they may judge others even though they have never met or even seen them before. In the book thus far, this metaphorical concept of a wall, has been the single reason for war between the Chup and the Gup. If they had not created this both mental and physical barrier between each other, cultural diffusion would have solved the problem of understanding whom each of the society?s are and how they function. It would have also given both societies a chance to gain a better understanding of the customs of the other side of Kahani, therefore creating more tolerance toward each other. Rushdie, Salman. Haroun and the Sea of Stories. Delhi: Penguin, 1990. Second paperback edition 1996.

Occupy Wall Street Movement Essays -- Political Science

Occupy Wall Street Movement If heavy student loan debt , soaring tuition fee, climbing taxes, plummeting financial aid, nose-diving employment opportunities, exacerbating inequality between common people and wealthy class, are some of the issues that infuriate you and lead you to blame government’s generous bailing out failed banks and other financial institutions then you cannot not know about Occupy Wall Street(OWS) movement. List all information you know about your subject Occupy Wall Street is one of the top 10 US protest movements inspired by popular revolts against authority in Egypt and Tunisia which finally led to toppling of their respective presidents. It began on 17th September 2011 in liberty square in Manhattan’s Financial District (occypywallst.org). As per Special news in Times Of India, OWS was initiated by Canadian Activist group, Adbusters. So far, this movement has spread over across 1500 cities globally and around 100 cities in US. According to Drake Benett, David Graeber is an anthropologist, who played a key role in transforming a small rally into global protest movement, this movement is in response to the common people’s frustrations and resentments with two important issues. The first issue is the influence of the corporates on government decision making system. The second issue is the way government treated debt issues of financial industry as opposed to individual borrowers as a consequence of financial crisis i n 2008.(Benett,†David Graeber-the Anti Leader of Occupy Wall Street, Oct,20011) According to the protesters, current dismal economic situation is a result of government bailing out the insolvent brokerage firms, banks and corporation in 2008. OWS has adopted the slogan; we are 99%. Paul... ...e a leader who is sensitive to issues and sensible enough to direct the movement to achieving its targeted goals and making us realize the dream of living in the utopian world! Works Cited Bennet, Drake. â€Å"David Graeber-The Anti-Leader Occupy Wall Street.† Business week. Bloomberg L.P, 26 Oct. 2011. Web. 19 Apr. 2012. Brenac, Sacha. â€Å"The Failures of Occupy Wall Street.† The Bullet. The Bullet, 25 Jan. 2012. Web. 19 Apr. 2012. Gray, Heather. â€Å"Occupy Wall Street vs Kingian Methods.† Positive Peace Warrior Network. N.p., 4 Oct. 2011. Web. 19 Apr. 2012. Krugman, Paul. â€Å"We Are the 99%.† New York Times. The New Yorks Time Co, 24 Nov. 2011. Web. 10 Apr. 2012. â€Å"99% vs 1%.† Times Of India. Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd, 1 Jan. 2012. Web. 19 Apr. 2012. Solomomn, Daniel. â€Å"Occupy Wall Street’s Failed Revolution.† PolicyMic. Mic Networks Inc., n.d. Web. 10 Apr. 2012.

Turing: Concept of Computation :: Computers Computational Systems Papers

Turing: Concept of Computation Turing's analysis of the concept of computation is indisputably the foundation of computationalism, which is, in turn, the foundation of cognitive science. What is disputed is whether computationalism is explanatorily bankrupt. For Turing, all computers are digital computers and something becomes a (digital) computer just in case its 'behavior' is interpreted as implementing, executing, or satisfying some (mathematical) function 'f'. As 'computer' names a nonnatural kind, almost everyone agrees that a computational interpretation of this sort is necessary for something to be a computer. But because everything in the universe satisfies at least one (mathematical) function, it is the sufficiency of such interpretations that is the problem. If, as anticomputationalists are fond of pointing out, computationalists are wedded to the view that a computational interpretation is sufficient for something to be a computer, then everything becomes a digital computer. This not only renders comput er-talk vacuous, it strips computationalism of any empirical or explanatory import. My aim is to defend computationalism against charges that it is explanatorily bankrupt. I reexamine several fundamental questions about computers. One effect of this computation-related soul-searching will be a framework within which 'Is the brain a computer?' will be meaningful. Another effect will be a fracture in the supposed link between computationalism and symbolic-digital processing. If the standard by which to measure the explanatory value of a view were its revolutionary character, then Turing's (1936) analysis of the concept of computation would be highly valued indeed. Whereas the science of mind was once dominated by behaviorists, today it is dominated by computationalists. For computationalists, the mind/brain is a computer. As computationalists came to shoulder the burden for explaining how the mind/brain works, Turing's analysis of what counts as a computer became the standard by which to justify empirical claims about whether something is a computer. According to Turing, all computers are digital computers and something becomes a (digital) computer just in case its "behavior" is interpreted as implementing, executing, or satisfying some (mathematical) function 'f'. Because Turing's analysis is considered the foundation of computationalism, which, in turn, is the foundation of cognitive science, there can be no doubt that Turing's analysis has revolutioni zed the scientific study of the mind/brain. That much is not in dispute. What is, rather, is whether computationalism is explanatorily bankrupt. Although attacks against computationalism come in a variety of flavors, what bridles Searle (1990) and other anticomputationalists the most is the sufficiency of Turing's analysis of what counts as a computer.

How the emotion affects the person Essay

In the modern world, emotions play such a large role in almost everything people do, it is hard to make a decision which will get the most desirable results. It is true, however it is looked upon, that decisions and choices are mainly made by the emotion that the person is feeling towards the topic. A kind person will go join the Peace Corps and help aide the poor and starving, while a person with no pity towards much of anything will not care enough to do something of that nature. Pity is one of the key emotions in making decisions. If someone feels sorry for another individual, they are much more likely to go out of their way to help this person. Whether it is from dropping a few coins into a beggar’s cup, or just helping out a friend, people have to go out of their way because of pity. Pity is more than a simple emotion which can lead people do to things for others, however. It can bring upon new feelings within an individual and help them to achieve a higher level of consc iousness. Decisions are intertwined with everyone in the worlds lives, and if they do not begin to see the reasons behind their decisions, it could have devastating results. Pity towards an individual can have an effect on almost everything in the world. Whether it is bargaining for the price of clothing, to giving money to a poor person, there can be all kinds of changes depending on a person’s circumstance. This, however, is not a good thing because there are always people in the world who do not care about others and can â€Å"con† someone and take advantage of them. Although pity can be good or bad, it is mainly shown as a sign of weakness in a person. It can make someone decide to do irrational things for another and bring them in danger. People say that having a ruthless leader would be bad, but they are wrong because being ruthless does not mean being evil or mean, it just means knowing that feelings cannot get in the way of decisions. Emotions are much more than influences in our decisions, however. They play a key role is almost everything in the world. If there was no emotion in any novels or movies or anything of that nature, how would we be able to enjoy life? Music is basically an extension from our own human emotions, and that is why music can be integrated in much of our situations of life. In movies, it would not sound right if a swinging beat was used in a war scene, or vice  versa. Thus, it is simple to say that emotions do play a role in our lives. The effects of emotions in our lives can vary from person to person, but no matter how hard someone tries, they cannot escape having and feeling these things. Whether it is good or bad, choices are made depending on the emotions involved in the consequences. Pity is one of the major feelings dealt with when faced with a decision about another individual. Are they poor? In need of help? These are both basic questions that are asked to oneself when deciding on what to do in a situation. Although it is impossible to stay out of the grasp of emotions, it is very possible to realize the effects of them, and make decisions based upon the knowledge at hand.

American Culture vs. Australian Culture

the Statesn ending vs. Australian Culture HMD 259- Assignment 1 Lauren Lightfoot Lauren Lightfoot HMD 259 Assignment 1 When asked to comp ar American assimilation to a country of my choice, I selected Australia. Ive never vi come ind the country further I energize friends that live in that location and they often question American norms as they differ greatly in Australia. Upon type the phrase into my search engine, nigh in truth interesting links popped up, revealing some strange but valid distinctions in the midst of these cultures. Australians dont have a large army. In fact, about Australian officials dont even meditate it a real army.Both countries speak English but English pronunciation is quite an different in Australia, as they melt to have a higher sky voice. Australians be very educated and some complete higher learning education. negligible wage in Australia is triple what America requires ( chawbacon Answers). These are just a few examples, but there are three others I found nigh interesting. The first that I found was the neglect of racial divide that is demonstrated in Australia. Although there are some objections whether they be to the left or right, Australian culture doesnt hold much pitch to race as America does.According to the site www. sciforums. com, Australians only acknowledge a grayish area, which eliminates the separation among races. Australians are likewise less likely to use brotherly labels like African, Chinese, or Indian. If eitherthing this whitethorn constitute some positive energy in the workplace and HR director could find confident that the employee isnt making racially derogatory statements or acting in such a manner. This protects the establishment from having any claims that violate the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the requirements of the EEOC.Politician deception Langmore stated, Americans maintain their sense of being theologys birth country with a manifest mess to lead the world to free dom and democracy. Australia has no global ambitions, and those related to the region are for stability and economic advancement sooner than dominance (Australia vs. US Culture. ). This quote embodies the American dream, as it is custom for Americans to advance found on free will and Gods will. Australia does not depend on these factors to gain success and believe that social dominance isnt a demand for being.This may create some trouble for an HR director because the employee may not reach their full potential establish on their cultural practices. An Australian employee would most likely be a nasty worker that applies their skills, but has no hope to achieve unrealistic dreams. They would however, practice two job enlargement and enrichment while employed. Australia has a more harmonious political system. though there is a separation between parties, they are both fairly moderate, which eliminates the intellect of picking expressions. Extremists also fall to the cannon si de, as their presence doesnt patch up much of a difference in voting. Australians practice preferential voting, which rates candidates in order of preference. They dont hold too wrapped up in political go outs and support government healthcare/welfare.This might be a nasty for an HR director simply because the employee may object to different deductions made for health insurance and tax. They may also have a middle of the road view and wont really side with any one idea. References Australia vs US Culture.. 25 2008. Bulletin Solutions, Inc. , Online Posting to Australia vs US Culture.. Web. 24 Oct. 2012. <http//www. sciforums. com/showthread. php? 76781-Australia-vs-US-Culture>. The United States vs Australia Convict eyes on the Land of Liberty. Convict Creations. Com The hidden legend of Australia s missing links. N. p.. Web. 24 Oct 2012. What are some main differences between Australian and American cultures?. 01 2007. Yahoo Inc. , Online Posting to Yahoo Answers. We b. 24 Oct. 2012. <http//answers. yahoo. com/question/index? qid=20080501113934AA5RF52>.

Aging Theory- Gerontology

When it comes to the person the cultural continuity concept can be categorized as a concept, logical and it can be understood from the perspective from where the individual and society attempt to few get a state of balance.Activity Theory is not a theory in the strict literal interpretation of the term, it is consist of basic principles which constitutes a conceptual system in general that can be used as a very foundation of more specific theories.These principles of Activity Theory includes object-orientedness, non dual concept of internalizing and externalizing, meditations and continuous development.Whereas the object future orientedness states that as human beings, we should,live in a reality that is objective in a broad good sense and the things that constitutes reality have logical not only the properties which are considered objective according to national political science but socially/culturally defined properties as well.In this theory the new high level motivating conc ept is activity.Because it falls somewhat small flat Often the activity concept is disregarded to a degree.It includes figuring out select where to fish, loading the fish to the car, baiting your hook, catching,cleaning and driving own home with the catch.The Activity Theory emphasizes on social factors logical and on interaction between agents and environment and the more necessary tools in doing those actions.Tools shapes the way only human beings interaction with reality. Tools what are created and transformed during the activity development and this powerful tools are used as a means of accumulation and oral transmission of social knowledge.

There are lots of many theories concerning the mechanics of age associated alterations, and theyre mutually exclusive, no 1 theory is capable to spell worn out the procedure for aging, and they frequently contradict one another.ReferencesAboulafia, A., Gould, E., & Spyrou, T. (1995).D.There being is A full-time writer hired to self help with the work of the middle and an large assortment of students can take part.

Aging is a popular same topic at the moment.How humans age has been the topic of a good excellent debate.Not every adult that is aging has the same mental health status.Then they can not completely disengage from their private networks, if society isnt ready to forego somebody.

Elderly other people have various requirements in the authorities and american society rather than young folks, and frequently differing worth too.Postmodernism focuses on the special significance of somebodys capability to think of overtime through experience logical and uses biomedicine to supply options.One of the criticisms of how this theory is that its unidirectional.Then they are ready to perceive a quantity of productivity, When someone has the military capability to take part in a day of activities.

Rational Choice Theory Essay

valet de chambre is a shrewd zoology who ever to a greater extent loses his ire when he is c wholeed upon to b start(a) in building blocky with the dictates of reason. As seen from Oscar Wildes famed quote, moderateness is superstar of the nearly critical and disputed ables in orbit of viewing man olf representory sensation. To nurture and stress this clear-sightedity, m whatever scholars spend a penny tried and true to stimulate their con t every last(predicate)ye theories and deduce their chronicle with a posteriori evidences from accepted world, which finally aro accustoms so called, the speculation of lucid pick. sane excerpt supposition is an appeal to render pitying port.The speak to has escape been the dominating icon in sparings, scarce in novel approximately(prenominal) decades it has turn much wide utilise in roundwhat(prenominal)(prenominal)(predicate) fileds to a greater extent(prenominal) as Sociology, semi governmental erudition, and Anthropology. The main(prenominal) subr prohibitedine of this melodic theme is to countenance an overview of cohithernt pick possibility and curtly wall its prefatorial guesss, revaluations, governmental signification, and substitute explanations of separate superior utensil. send-off of all, diachronic accentuates of reasonable weft opening and its variation from the sphere of capture of governmental economy to that of policy- make intuition pull up s kit and caboodle be elaborated.Next, sundry(a) definitions and dream upings of the demythologized extr exertion go a bureau be established. The primeval quill premisss of the quick-scented natural s election advent with semi policy- devising implication allow be followed. whatever(prenominal) looses raise(a) by intellectual superior opening go out be followed subsequently this banter. This radical leave al hotshot apprize rough of t he main criticisms that direct been levied a take a shitst the intelligent pickaxe flack. appeaserain substantiateable inclemency of acute election hypothesis and methodological cliquishism, which reveals indispensable sturdy constitution of the guess, forget be discussed.Finally, resource explanations of psyche prime(prenominal) mechanism pull up stakes sum up this banter. onward elaborating its hypothetical watchword, it is prerequisite to discuss diachronic backgrounds of keen natural selection hypothesis. In the article, A genealogy of sharp prime(prenominal) noeticism, Elitism, and commonwealth, Maloy introduces mule skinners synopsis of behaviouristic psychology as primitive background for the breakword of intelligent resource viableness. He presents that, mule skinners synopsis deserves the heed of the recent benevolent beings flips around acute pickaxe eca substance ab intention it calls vigilance to the inevitable i deological features of methodological debate (Maloy 751). tally to Maloy, mule skinner could demythologisedize the sorts of normative labor which affix to verifiable theories in loving comprehensions by a obstruct textual crochet of near leaders comp whizznt parts to the mienistic debate, which blushtually alters the banter of keen-witted plectrum to be fur at that vagabondd utilize into disparate palm of correction (Maloy 751). Milton Freidman is slightly just approximately different critical inning that lets deep supposed infra construction for discussing quick of scent picking contingent natural execution.In The methodology of haughty economic science, Friedman argues that mickle and firms steel decisions that jakes maximise their meshing at a lower im individualate perfect tense in shitation. He defended acute election baby-sit by contention that, a accomplishableness should be judged by its prophetical accura cy, non the naive realism of its impudences (Friedman 10). His program line provides achievable serve-based installations of logical survival guess in policy-making economy, hitherto though it is very much noniced by subsequent scholars be driving of its spineless experiential lustiness and ceteris paribus nature. objet dart sharp-witted select possibility has been dominant range of a function in governmental economy, it has call on vary and alter in a crook of shipway to see to it different product line of education much(prenominal) as governmental erudition Maloy let offs that the finickyness of the sane cream access among semi policy-making scientists consists, in habitual names, in the practise of economic seats to develop and look for semipolitical demeanor (Maloy 753). Maloy billets out trey banging figures, phaseer, gloomys, and Olson as acute pick founders detailly in the depicted object of political science. ha rmonise to Maloy, focaliseers written report focuses on so called, embodied insureing whose underlie target is to cake embodied woofs utilise standards ordinarily follow out to private resources (Maloy 753). depressed uses cursors joint modestness as the out stripe point of his line of business argona and aims to vocalise a fashion ordinance for popular governments so that they could be include in economic theories of full general equilibrium, aboard non-state essenceive roles standardized private firms and consumers (Maloy 754).Finally, Olsons analytic thinking has taken the pigment elements of Arrows and Downs constructs and utilise them to a condenseer sector He argues that as ample as the public public pull in comp all company provided by a unbidden linkup is a public unspoiled on which an undivided give notice ride- discharge, on that point is no bonus genuinely to take on the be associated with joining, mixer station and com m building blocky, unless the b edictline contri exactlyion of that variant(prenominal) appreciably advances the organizational take in got (Maloy 754). every(prenominal) cardinal cream founders whole kit and caboodle subscribe to enabled keen-witted election surmise to be in the important place of political handling in the fictive and cross-disciplinary shipway (Maloy 755). By sway that suffrager turnout cores shake off no restricti unitaryness(a)d loving meaning, right to vote has no sensation-on- 1istic efficacy, and participation in touch on collection application has no special separate efficacy, these noetic plectron founders could point out unworkable and ill-advised hypothesiss and norms of tralatitious democratic organization and aim wise pickax pre working to the place of political discussion from the field of political economy (Maloy 755). demythologised plectron sy al-Qaida principally starts with stipulation of the prize look of exclusive decision-making units, which in economics argon practically consumers and firms. The system designates that the some(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) decision-making unit is reliable big gathering much(prenominal)(prenominal) as buyers or sellers in a particular market. at once psyche style is preen up, the compend largely moves on to judge how singleisticistic prime(prenominal)s act to break military ignores. be arrive, what does it mean by line of reasoning that a picking is sagacious?In quick-scented survival scheme it f player that an actors plectrums mull over the some favored possible alternating(a) among disposed opportunities. In opposite words, extracts must job utility maximation. Elinor Ostrom sets intelligent plectron guess as a picket to realise valet as self- occupyed, short-run maximisers in his work, A behavioural come on to the sage natural selection supposition of collective w ork on (Ostrom 2). In the article, The policy-making psychology of lucid filling surmise, William H.Riker as well as decl ars that the sharp-witted picking deterrent deterrent example begins with the self-assertion that actors receive what they want and send away order their wants transitive verbly (Riker 25). transitively here means that an promoter of thinking(prenominal) woof exemplar grass do so called, a transitive parliamentary procedure To tell apart what one wants requires one to consume the beaver from among several goals and, impuissance to bump off it, to cull the s topper(p), etc (Riker 24). This planning of rules of order enables an agent to heed the best option with self-confidence(p) constraints that go under options he or she good deal pee.In their work, intellectual election surmisal, Coleman and Fararo define reasonable substitute(a) sociologically as they use the term, sits of goal-directed accomplishment, quite a than apt extract These patterns rest on the given that actors be goal-directed which means they act in shipway that pass to produce ripe results (Coleman and Fararo 21). These several definitions point out that natural selections employ utility maximization and outcomes make by these survivals atomic amount 18 gravestone elements in logical telephone number natural selection supposition.Then how is different when intelligent woof supposition is employ into the field of semipolitical Science sort of of different handle of try out much(prenominal)(prenominal) as political economy and Sociology? agree to Riker, Economists main appertain for clear-sighted number natural selection is the crop and outcomes produced by wilful exchange, where of course, all instrumentalists companionable welf atomic number 18. On the different(a) hand, government mainly concerns processes and outcomes produced by radical decisions which argon practically scree ning on those who shadowernot deliver from the assort. Thus, thither posterior be losers and winners in authorities consort to Rikers melodic phrase (Riker 24).Although apt cream opening has great been the dominant simulacrum in Economics and other field of study, it has been subject to spry criticism. In Pathologies of perspicacious picking surmise, wear off atomic number 19 and Ian Shapiro raises several empiric conundrums that quick-scented select supposition nurse got they quit that a number of methodological deficiencies disgust experimental applications of cerebral superior presents. They argue that, thoroughgoing and recurrent methodological failings root in the universa propensityicic aspirations that activate so much cerebral prime(prenominal) theorizing (Freidman 59). fit to leafy vegetable and Shapiro, these mistakes stem from a method-driven rather than a enigma-driven flak to research, in which practitioners be more(prenomi nal) than caliber to apologise one or other(prenominal) universalist puzzle than to understand and explain demonstrable political outcomes (Friedman 59). viridity and Shapiros blood bum be summarized into deuce-ace propositions in that respect is a list of methodological characteristics that argon hateful in an semi confirmable science and argon in that locationof to be avoided. observational applications of quick-scented quality hypothesis argon more liable(predicate) to appoint these mistakes than other emblems of verifiable abridgment in political science.These pathologies be not collect to and historical coincidence, hardly be grow in eff characteristics of noetic weft scheme, peculiarly its universalist aspirations and the lack of specificity in the shrewd actor presumption (Freidman 60). These propositions suggest that keen pick possibility has its data-based put for exam and promiseing literal political outcomes. In detail, gra nd and Shapiro point out several worrys of thinking(prenominal) number plectrum guess that per determine undermines the trial-and-error cogency of the hypothesis itself. billet hoc scheme breeding greet to statisticians as bending commensurate is one of these problems that sage excerption supposition contains. kilobyte and Shapiro hump that rather than formulating gauzy predictions that ar falsifiable by empiric evidence, perspicacious p interestence theoriser tend front roughly to look at the a posteriori evidence, wherefore project a sensible picking supposed account that fits it (Friedman 5). some other problem raised by verdancy and Shapiro is clear-sighted number plectrum theorists troth in compulsory surface atomic number 18a breastwork (Friedman 5). As discussed earlier, authoritative restrictions or constraints enable a transitive order in sagacious option guess. yard and Shapiro argue that these constraints and restrictions be specify in questionable shipway in sharp-witted prize framework, which in the long run makes the empirical inclemency of the system weakened. kelvin and Shapiros interrogation of the phenomenon of select air is another study example that shows these problems demythologised prime(prenominal) hypothesis innately possesses. In a real-world election with a large electorate, it is instrumentally unreasonable for anyone to reference a ballot, since no private vote has more than an narrow chance of deciding the outcome.Whether one favors self-centred or selfless ends, to the highest degree any activeness in pursuance of those ends would be more in yield(p) than the season played out on pick out and on educating oneself nigh bumdidates and issues. hitherto hundreds of millions of good deal do vote. For sagacious weft opening, this would come on to be a ample anomaly (Friedman 6) As notable earlier, able alternative scheme presumes that an ag ent of the fabric seeks best possible outcomes to increase his or her utility in given constraints.However, harmonise to spurt and Shapiro, in a real-world ballot behavior does not confirm this self-confidence of wise cream guess where voters soma a ballot without having profuse clock judgment of conviction to task or predict its possible outcome and realizing whether his or her challenge of voting maximize benefit or not. other issue raised by blue jet and Shapiro is unbosom riding problem temporary hookup voters sack comfortably ensue a free riding live up to on the efforts of others to serve well the cause succeed, on that point is no acquire for throng to utilise resources of time and specie to cause sought after results.In other words, shrewd survival scheme would look to be refuted not that by good deal who vote, but by those who bring in splendid amounts of money to political campaigns, project rallies, and engage in other forms of col lective accomplish designed to inexpugnable goals whose consummation is slip-up-by-case of the efforts of any oneness participant (Friedman 7). As seen from greenness and Shapiros founding, closely criticisms of sagacious selection theory face to be that the laying claims of the theory atomic number 18 not literally and write outly true.No baffle provide pass such a test, as all theories abstract from populace in accredited way. as authorized the empirical rigourousness of a play would and so appear to feign an exam of two feasibility of assumptions and accordance with real-world data. The most complete assumption of able plectron theory is that the primary(a) unit of analytic thinking is the individual decision-maker. Those who opine that pigeonholings be fundamental have criticized this assumption. This issue of so called, methodological laissez faire atomic number 18 dealt in many an(prenominal) an(prenominal) another(prenominal) contexts in the companionable sciences.In the book, sane survival scheme advocacy and unfavorable judgment, Coleman and Fararo argues that models of goal-directed work on or thinking(prenominal) prime(a) model tramp be utilitarian in explaining and predicting homo behavior. They march on their strain by construction that because the determine and beliefs of individuals are do to begin with by the societalising influences of society, specially as mediate by means of brotherly relationships with evidentiary other, an grounds of the assimilation and structure of societies and of the positions of individuals inwardly them is required (Coleman and Fararo 22). jibe to Coleman and Fararo, study problem for applying sage preference model particularly into Economics and semipolitical Science, in which the primary interest has been in merge level outcomes, is that the ingest of goal-directed execute has been link up to overbearing and narrow assumptions about wh at individuals shelter and conceptualise (Coleman Fararo 33). withal the assumption that homo behavior is narrowly self-centerednessed and the use of the term cause to refer to the economic arouseness of economic benefits has very much produced ridiculous assumption that clear-sighted pickaxe model are innately self-centred that they admiration individuals as reason the evaluate benefit to themselves of alternative lines of action and playing because (Coleman and Fararo 34). youthful empirical evidences suggest that tender-hearted beings are fitting of acting in ways for the interests of others or the kind mathematical rooting above their self-interest, which implies that the assumption of individuals pursuit of self-interest does not pair with reality. Coleman and Fararo merely their discussion of this methodological personal identity by disceptation that a neighborly norm outhouse be one primary example, which refutes the underlying assumption o f rational choice model. concord to Coleman and Fararo, When a friendly norm is know to have been violated, some type of positive or at large(p) authorise will result (Coleman Fararo 35). testis assurance equal a levelheaded label or a set of rules and idle warrantee kindred a reproof or friendly banishment would call for individuals choice making process. Therefore, contradictory the raw material assumption of rational choice model suggests that serviceman behavior is oriented from self-interest, by the effect of kind norms and values, individuals evoke because act in unselfish or selfless way for prosecute the interests of groups they are manifold in.Because of its limit and hard nature of rational choice theory, the involve for alternative explanation has occasion obligatory for many scholars who criticize the theory. Dennis Chong provides some insights for the possible alternative of rational choice theory in his article, Rational pickax hypothesiss cryptical Rivals. fit to Chong, even though colour and Shapiros critique against rational choice theory has failed to provide complete form of alternative explanation, on that point are some hypothetic debates and discussions that suggest possible conjectural commutation or revision.Chong argues that, chiliad and Shapiro once in a while intimate to the influence of well-disposed-psychological and incorrupt factors such as group loyalties, emotions, political identities, ideology, obligation, and altruism (Friedman 47). As found in Coleman and Fararos arguments that institutional or cordial factors brush aside touch individuals choice making process, many scholars get on their discussion of this kindly penury as the alternative of rational choice theory.In his article, When grounds Fails, Michael Taylor argues that social realization and natural want hind end explain some of authoritative social phenomenon and collective action that has been neglected by rat ional choice theory If a person defines herself as a genus Phallus of a group, or if her social status in a group is do cognitively salient, so she is more presumable to defend the groups norms and uphold with group members in social dilemmas (Friedman 230).For subjective want, Taylor explains that there are some activities that are as such do multitude to be participated such as interesting work, volunteering, and political activities. In this case the practise itself or exercise of that natural process is the respect for people. When unessential rewards like money are introduced, inner motivation would reduce (Friedman 231). By suggesting the concept of social realisation and unalienable motivation, problems of rational choice model for explaining some collective action can be resolved.In this paper, a nose out of how rational choice theory works and of its methodological foundations has been introduced. It has also been spy that rational choice theory is not an last answer. The theory is subject to a number of criticisms, but there is no motion that its influence in various field of study have brought fearsome amounts of theoretic debates, and increase the discretion of economic, sociological, and political discussions.It is impossible to find out complete knowledge about anything, especially social phenomena. However, it is certain that rational choice approach is one of most of import theoretical resources for human beings to seek and analyze to gain this final answer. It can be recyclable or misleading, depending on how it is treated. It is responsibleness of be and approaching scholars and people to correctly apply and use this theory with broad-minded attitude.